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No theory predicts these numbers.","posed_since":"","precise":"The SM Yukawa couplings span $y_e \\sim 3 \\times 10^{-6}$ to $y_t \\sim 1$, CKM angles are small ($\\theta_C \\sim 0.23$, $\\mid V_{ub}\\mid$ $\\sim 4 \\times 10^{-3}$) while PMNS angles are large ($\\theta_{12} \\sim 34\\,\\mathrm{deg}$, $\\theta_{23} \\sim 45\\,\\mathrm{deg}$). An answer is a mechanism (Froggatt-Nielsen charges, modular or discrete flavor symmetries, extra-dimensional localization, partial compositeness) that predicts these values with fewer parameters than it explains.","problem_ref":"99f833884d96384393205516c986a9ec5e2f8d4df855ee94dca113be77b49833","references":"","settled_by":"A model with fewer free parameters than observables whose extra predictions (mixing sum rules, flavor-violating rates, new states) are confirmed.","status_note":"","title":"What determines the hierarchy of quark and lepton 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